How Some Men Became Rulers

In the Early Vedic period, tribal chiefs ('rajas') often became leaders based on their bravery in battle or their ability to lead the tribe. Power was less hereditary and more based on selection or consensus within the tribe.

However, in the Later Vedic period (around 1000-500 BCE) and the subsequent Mahajanapada period (around 600 BCE), changes occurred in how rulers were chosen. Some men became rulers of territories through more elaborate processes.

• Some 'rajas' or powerful men asserted their authority over larger areas and groups of people.
• They started performing big sacrifices, such as the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). These elaborate rituals, performed by priests, were meant to demonstrate the power and authority of the raja. The horse was let loose to wander; if it entered other kingdoms and was not stopped, it signified that the raja who sent it was superior. If stopped, battles would follow.
• These sacrifices helped establish the raja as the ruler of a 'janapada' or kingdom, not just a tribal chief. People from various groups (brahmins, vaishyas) attended the sacrifice, reinforcing the raja's status. However, some groups (shudras) and women were often excluded from these rituals.
• Through conquest, alliances, and asserting control over land and people, some powerful individuals established themselves as rulers of defined territories.

This transition marked the shift from tribal polities to territorial kingdoms, where power became more concentrated and hereditary, laying the groundwork for the emergence of larger states and eventually empires.

Janapadas

With the development of more settled agricultural life and the decline of purely tribal organisation, larger territorial units began to emerge in the Later Vedic period (around 1000-500 BCE). These territorial units were called Janapadas.

The word 'Janapada' literally means 'the land where the Jana (tribe) has set its foot'. It refers to a territory inhabited by a particular tribe or people.

• Rulers of these Janapadas often performed big sacrifices, like the Ashvamedha, to assert their control over the territory.
• Excavations at sites associated with Janapadas (e.g., Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapur near Meerut, Atranjikhera near Etah) provide archaeological evidence of this period.
• Archaeological finds include pottery (often Painted Grey Ware), iron tools (for agriculture and warfare), and remains of houses (sometimes mud huts).
• People lived in huts and reared animals. They also grew a variety of crops, including rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, and sesame.

Janapadas were essentially early kingdoms based on territory rather than just tribal affiliation. They represented a step towards larger political formations in ancient India.

The Earliest States (Mahajanapadas)

Around 2500 years ago (or 6th century BCE), some Janapadas became more important and developed into larger political entities called Mahajanapadas (literally 'great Janapadas'). This period is considered a key turning point, marking the emergence of the first major states in Indian history.

Mahajanapadas were characterised by:

• Larger territories compared to Janapadas.
• Often had a capital city, which was usually fortified.
• Had standing armies maintained by rulers.
• Began collecting regular taxes from the population.
• Started using Punch Marked Coins (earliest form of coinage in India).

The Sixteen Mahajanapadas

Ancient texts (like Buddhist and Jaina texts) mention sixteen major Mahajanapadas that existed in North India and parts of the Deccan around the 6th century BCE. Some prominent ones were:

• Kashi (Varanasi)
• Kosala (Sravasti)
• Anga (Champa)
• Magadha (Rajagriha/Patliputra)
• Vajji (Vaishali) - a republican state (gana-sangha)
• Malla (Kusinara, Pava) - also a republican state
• Chedi (Sotthivati)
• Vatsa (Kaushambi)
• Kuru (Indraprastha)
• Panchala (Ahichchhatra, Kampilya)
• Matsya (Viratnagar)
• Surasena (Mathura)
• Ashmaka (Potana) - located in the Deccan
• Avanti (Ujjain)
• Gandhara (Taxila) - located in the northwest
• Kamboja (Rajapura) - located in the northwest

*(Image shows a map of ancient India highlighting the locations of the 16 major Mahajanapadas around the 6th century BCE)*

First Amongst The Sixteen: Magadha

Among the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Magadha emerged as the most powerful and ultimately formed the first major empire in India. Several factors contributed to Magadha's rise:

• Geographical advantage: Located in a fertile region watered by the Ganga and Son rivers, providing good agricultural productivity and water transport routes.
• Rich iron ore deposits: Near the capital (Rajagriha) provided resources for making strong tools and weapons.
• Elephants: Forests in the region provided elephants, which were important for the army.
• Trade routes: Strategic location controlling important trade routes.
• Able rulers: Powerful and ambitious rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru of the Haryanka dynasty, and later rulers of the Nanda dynasty, built a strong army and expanded the kingdom.
• Flexible social structure: Magadha had a less orthodox social structure compared to Kuru-Panchala, allowing for the rise of new groups and ideas.

Magadha's ascent led to conflicts with other Mahajanapadas, eventually leading to its dominance and the foundation of the Mauryan Empire.

Mahajanapadas

This section seems to be a duplicate or intended as a general introduction to Mahajanapadas before discussing Magadha. Since the core information about Mahajanapadas is covered in the detailed Section I11 below (The Earliest States), this section can serve as a brief re-introduction before delving into specific aspects like taxes.

Around 2500 years ago (6th century BCE), the Indian subcontinent saw the rise of powerful political entities known as Mahajanapadas. These were large kingdoms or republics that emerged from the earlier Janapadas.

Key features included capital cities, standing armies, and the beginning of regular taxation.

*(Image shows a general map indicating the presence of Mahajanapadas in northern India around the 6th century BCE)*

The rise of Mahajanapadas represented a significant step in the political evolution of ancient India, laying the foundation for the later large empires.

Taxes (Mahajanapadas)

One of the key changes during the period of Mahajanapadas was the development of a system of regular taxation. Unlike the 'rajas' of the Early Vedic period who received voluntary gifts (bali), the rulers of Mahajanapadas needed resources to maintain their large armies and build fortifications. They achieved this by collecting taxes from the people.

Sources of Taxes:

• Taxes on crops: This was the most important tax, as most people were farmers. Usually, the tax was fixed at 1/6th of the produce. This was called 'bhaga'.
• Taxes on craftspersons: Craftspersons had to pay taxes, sometimes in the form of labour (e.g., working for the king for a day).
• Taxes on herders: Herders had to pay taxes in the form of animals or animal produce.
• Taxes on traders: Taxes were levied on goods traded by merchants.
• Taxes on hunters and gatherers: They had to provide forest produce to the raja.

Administration of Taxes:

• To collect taxes regularly, rulers needed officials. These officials were likely appointed by the king.
• Maintaining records of tax collection might have been done, although detailed records from this early period are limited.

The system of regular taxation marked a significant increase in the power of the state and its ability to mobilise resources. This facilitated the maintenance of standing armies and the construction of large capital cities, which were characteristic of the Mahajanapadas.

A Closer Look — (A) Magadha

As discussed in the earlier section on Mahajanapadas, Magadha emerged as the most powerful kingdom among the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Its strategic advantages and strong leadership allowed it to dominate others and become the nucleus of the first great Indian empire.

Magadha was located in what is now parts of Bihar. Its initial capital was at Rajagriha (modern Rajgir), which was later shifted to Patliputra (modern Patna) in the 4th century BCE.

Factors Behind Magadha's Success:

• Fertile land for agriculture (Ganga and Son plains).
• Rich iron ore deposits nearby (useful for tools and weapons).
• Forests for timber and elephants (important for military).
• Access to riverine trade routes.
• Ambitious rulers (Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Mahapadma Nanda).

The rulers of Magadha used their resources effectively to build large armies and expand their territory through conquests and alliances.

Magadha's power grew steadily under various dynasties, including the Haryanka, Shishunaga, and Nanda dynasties. The Nanda dynasty, particularly Mahapadma Nanda, established a vast kingdom, laying the groundwork for the Mauryan Empire, which was founded after Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nandas around 321 BCE.

The rise of Magadha set the stage for the transition from regional states to a subcontinent-wide empire.

A Very Big Kingdom = An Empire (Mauryan)

Building on the foundation laid by the powerful Magadha kingdom, Chandragupta Maurya (ruled c. 321-297 BCE) founded the Mauryan Empire by overthrowing the Nanda dynasty. The Mauryan Empire was the first major empire to unify a large part of the Indian subcontinent under one rule.

An empire is a large political unit that rules over a vast territory encompassing multiple kingdoms or regions, often with diverse populations. Empires are typically characterised by a centralised administration, a strong army, and extensive control over resources.

The Mauryan Empire, especially under Emperor Ashoka (Chandragupta's grandson, ruled c. 268-232 BCE), extended its control over almost the entire subcontinent, from Afghanistan and Balochistan in the northwest to parts of South India, excluding only a few southern kingdoms.

This vast territory and centralised rule distinguish the Mauryan Empire from the earlier regional Mahajanapadas.

Ruling The Empire (Mauryan)

Governing a vast and diverse empire like the Mauryan Empire was a complex task that required a sophisticated administrative system. The empire needed to collect taxes, maintain law and order, manage resources, and defend its borders.

Administering a Vast Empire:

• The Mauryan Empire had a centralised administration, with the emperor as the supreme authority.
• The empire was divided into provinces, which were further divided into districts and villages.
• Officials were appointed at different levels to collect taxes, administer justice, and maintain order.
• A strong army was maintained to protect the empire and suppress internal rebellions.
• Espionage system was also present to monitor officials and the population.

The Emperor And The Capital City

• The capital of the Mauryan Empire was at Patliputra (modern Patna). The emperor resided in the capital and controlled the central administration.
• Patliputra was a large and magnificent city, as described by the Greek ambassador Megasthenes in his account Indica (though the original Indica is lost, its fragments survive in later writings).
• Megasthenes described the city, the administration, the army, and aspects of Mauryan society and economy. He described the emperor being protected by female guards, royal processions, and state control over certain activities.
• Besides the capital, other important cities existed in the empire, such as Taxila (northwest, a learning centre), Ujjain (central India, important trade route), and Sravanabelagola (South India, Jaina centre).

*(Image shows an artistic depiction of the ancient city of Patliputra or a map illustrating the vast territorial extent of the Mauryan Empire)*

Administering Different Parts of the Empire:

• The empire was so large that different parts were administered differently.
• Areas around the capital (Patliputra) were under direct control of the emperor, with appointed officials collecting taxes and administering justice.
• Other areas were ruled by provincial capitals (e.g., Taxila, Ujjain), often governed by royal princes. These regions had local administrative structures but were under the overall control of the central government.
• More remote areas might have had less direct control from the centre, with local rulers or tribal chiefs exercising some authority, but acknowledging the Mauryan emperor's suzerainty.
• Trade routes were important for the empire, connecting the capital with provincial centres and remote regions. The army was used to protect these routes.

The Mauryan administration was complex, adapting its methods to suit the diverse regions within the empire, but maintaining central control through a hierarchy of officials and a strong army.

Ashoka, A Unique Ruler

Among the Mauryan emperors, Ashoka is the most famous and is considered a unique ruler in the history of the world. He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya and came to the throne around 268 BCE.

Why Ashoka is considered unique:

• He was the first ruler to try and take his message directly to the people through inscriptions. His edicts were inscribed on pillars, rocks, and caves throughout his empire.
• He used the vernacular languages (various forms of Prakrit) for his inscriptions, making them accessible to the common people in different regions. The script used was primarily Brahmi (in most parts), but also Kharosthi (in the northwest), and even Greek and Aramaic in parts of Afghanistan.
• After a major war, he gave up conquest and became a follower of Buddhism, dedicating himself to the welfare of his people and promoting moral and ethical principles (Dhamma).

Ashoka's approach to kingship and his efforts to rule based on moral principles distinguished him from many other rulers of his time.

Ashoka’s War In Kalinga

A significant event in Ashoka's life that led to a profound change in his approach to ruling was his war in Kalinga.

The Kalinga War:

• Kalinga was a region on the coast of modern Odisha. It was an independent kingdom that Ashoka wanted to conquer.
• Ashoka fought a devastating war against Kalinga around 8 years after becoming emperor (around 260 BCE).
• The war was brutal and resulted in immense suffering. Ashoka's own inscription (Major Rock Edict 13) describes the horrors of the war: over 100,000 people were killed, and many more were taken captive.

Ashoka's Change of Heart:

• The immense violence and suffering caused by the Kalinga war deeply affected Ashoka.
• He expressed remorse and regret for the bloodshed and destruction.
• The Kalinga war led Ashoka to renounce military conquest (digvijaya).
• Instead of conquest through war, he decided to conquer people through Dhamma (dhammavijaya), by spreading moral and ethical principles.

This transformation after the Kalinga war is a pivotal event in Ashoka's life and a defining characteristic of his reign. It led him to adopt a policy of promoting welfare and morality rather than territorial expansion through violence.

What Was Ashoka’s Dhamma?

Ashoka's Dhamma was not a new religion, nor was it a strict set of religious rules. It was a set of moral and ethical principles that Ashoka wanted his people to follow. His goal was to promote peace, harmony, and well-being in his empire.

Key Principles of Ashoka's Dhamma:

• Respect for elders: Treating elders with respect.
• Kindness to servants and slaves: Treating all individuals, including those in subordinate positions, with kindness.
• Respect for all religions: Promoting tolerance and respect among different religious communities. Ashoka believed that the essence of all religions was the same.
• Spending generously towards Brahmins and monks.
• Non-violence towards living beings: Reducing violence and killing, including for sacrifices. Ashoka banned animal sacrifices in his empire.
• Truthfulness and purity.
• Doing good deeds.
• Avoiding pride and jealousy.

Spreading Dhamma:

• Ashoka appointed special officials called Dhamma Mahamattas to travel around the empire and teach people about Dhamma.
• He got his message inscribed on pillars and rocks so that people could read and follow his principles.
• He sent messengers to other lands (e.g., Syria, Egypt, Greece, Sri Lanka) to spread his message of Dhamma.

Ashoka's Dhamma was an attempt to create a just and compassionate society based on ethical values, demonstrating a unique approach to imperial rule in the ancient world.

An Early Empire (Mauryan)

The Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya in the 4th century BCE, was a significant political development in ancient India. It established centralised rule over a large part of the subcontinent and represents the transition from regional kingdoms to a vast empire.

Founding and Expansion:

• Chandragupta Maurya, with the help of his advisor Chanakya (Kautilya), overthrew the Nanda dynasty and established the Mauryan Empire with its capital at Patliputra.
• Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft, administration, economics, and political science, which provides valuable insights into the Mauryan administration and policies.
• Chandragupta Maurya expanded the empire to include large parts of North India.
• His successor, Bindusara, further expanded the empire.
• Ashoka, Bindusara's son, conquered Kalinga (modern Odisha), completing the territorial expansion of the empire over almost the entire subcontinent.

Finding Out About The Mauryas

Our knowledge of the Mauryan Empire comes from various sources:

• Archaeological sources: Especially Ashoka's pillars and rock edicts with inscriptions. Also, archaeological remains of cities, palaces, and artifacts.
• Literary sources:
  • Arthashastra by Chanakya/Kautilya: Provides details on administration, economy, and political theory.
  • Indica by Megasthenes: Provides description of the Mauryan Empire, especially Patliputra, administration, and society (though only fragments survive).
  • Buddhist, Jaina, and Puranic texts: Contain information about the Mauryan rulers, especially Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism.

These sources, when studied together, provide a comprehensive picture of the Mauryan Empire.

Administering The Empire

The Mauryan administration was centralised with the emperor at the apex. Key aspects included:

• A well-organised bureaucracy with various officials responsible for different departments (revenue, justice, military, etc.).
• Collection of regular taxes (land revenue was a major source).
• Maintenance of a large standing army (infantry, cavalry, elephants, chariots).
• Provinces governed by princes or high-ranking officials.
• Emphasis on public welfare and infrastructure (roads, wells, rest houses, medical care) as promoted by Ashoka.
• Espionage system for maintaining control.

How Important Was The Empire?

The Mauryan Empire was highly significant in ancient Indian history:

• Political Unification: It was the first time a large part of the subcontinent was unified under a single political authority, laying the foundation for the concept of a unified India.
• Centralised Administration: Established a sophisticated administrative system that influenced later Indian polities.
• Economic Development: Facilitated trade and economic activity across the empire by maintaining roads and ensuring security.
• Spread of Dhamma: Ashoka's efforts to spread moral principles and Buddhism had a lasting impact in India and beyond.
• Art and Architecture: Period saw the development of distinctive Mauryan art and architecture, including Ashoka pillars and stupas.

The Mauryan Empire represents a major peak in the political and administrative history of ancient India.